Organization and Management Analysis Essay

Organizational and management analysis are an essential part of organizational environment. In the modern world, working environment characteristics are team work, delegation, information technology interfaces, which have an impact on the effectiveness of organization and management. This helps in cost reduction, decrease in environmental waste, improved employee satisfaction and an increase in overall productivity. To have an organizational and management analysis review of organizational charts, meeting with department managers, executives or board members, and an organizational survey is necessary (Jones, 2006). A multi-dimensional examination of organizational and management analysis gives a complete picture of the actual situation which can be a starting point. This paper is to describe various organizational theories, compares management theories and styles, and explains which organizational theory and management style resembles our organization. Also, this paper explains what could be changed to make our organization better. Organizational Theories Organizational theory is to identify how they solve problems and how they maximize efficiency and productivity. These theories mostly derived from the activities of successful organizations. All of these theories contributes to the overall understanding of management. As in any other theories organizational theories provide the basis for ongoing research and application of human behavior in organizational settings. Classical Organizational Theory Focus on the theories of efficiency. The components include scientific management, bureaucratic theory, and administrative theory. Scientific management focus on getting the best from the people, equipment, and business. So that productivity can be increased. In this, the workers got scientifically selected, trained and taught for the work. On the other hand, bureaucratic theory focus on establishing a hierarchy, division of labor, rules, and regulations. In the current world, many of the managers think that bureaucratic theory is a hindrance to employees’ creativity. Administrative theory establishes a set of management principles and functions that applied to the organizations. This serves as a centralized  decision making approach (Coulter & Robbins, 2012). Neoclassical Organization Theory This theory emphasizes effective and sociopsychological aspects of human behaviors in an organization. As we see in many of the current organizations many of the managers motivate, lead, build trust, work with the team, manage conflicts is all based on the organizational performance approach. The way manager design jobs, work with the employees, the method of communication is general in the behavioral approach. Productivity increases in an environment with coherence of values and purpose. The key is to maintain equilibrium where subordinates respect and believe managerial authority (Chron, 2014). Contingency Theory This is a management approach that recognizes each organization as different, which means that each organization faces different situations and requires different ways of managing. This helps the management to understand that there are no universal rules for managers to follow. Instead of looking into the universal rules, the manager must look on to the individual situation and determine the best and efficient way to manage the situation ideally. Different changing circumstances require managers to use different approaches and techniques. There are no simple or complex rules to follow. Managers are able to take decisions based on the conditions (Coulter & Robbins, 2012). Systems Theory The system theory approach explains that organizations take information form the environment and transforms these resources into outputs into the environment. This theory explains the interrelatedness of all parts of an organization and how one change in one area can affect multiple other parts. In this, all the units work together to achieve the organizational goals. Organization depends upon inputs form capital, government regulations, suppliers, information technology, human resources, to receive the output of financial results, products, services and information (Liebler & McConnel, 2012). Organizational theory suits our Organization The organizational theory that closely resembles our organization is the  Contingency Theory. Adapting to the new changes in the environment is the basis for Contingency theory. This theory is important for managerial and organizational success. We have recently adopted Electronic Medical Records, and we are in the adaptation stage of information technology. Manager takes decision based on the current circumstances, which is logical because the units within our organization differ in size, structure, capacity, work activities, and goals. So a universally acceptable theory will not work in all situations. Different situations require different theories of management. Some situation the division of labor and bureaucracy is desirable which supports the classic theory. Other situations structural design becomes effective. Depends on the situation the manager takes the stand. Contingency theory claims that there is no best way to design an organization. There is no written rule on what is the best or the universal solution for the problems in our organization. There is no best way to organize a corporation or to lead a company. Also, the theory that works in our organization may not work for other organizations (Coulter & Robbins, 2012). Compares Management Theories and Styles Managers communication with the subordinates reflects a cluster of styles which the management styles. Managers use different style in different situations. Generally, we can see one style generally emerges as the predominant mode of interaction. Autocratic manager makes independent decisions without much input from subordinates. The manager clearly dictates what, how, when and where things for the employees there is no room for employee initiatives. An autocratic style is least effective and desirable for motivating employees. Another management style is the bureaucratic management style in which the manager follows the rule and ensures that the employees follow the rules â€Å"as well â€Å". They go by the book and the rules and enforced strictly. In this, the employees enjoy less freedom. No exceptions permitted. Participative management is which the manager makes the final decisions, but the employees are involved in this process. Both the manager and the employees involved in the decision making process. Decision made as a cohesive group interaction. Everyone might not accept managers decision. Another type is the Laissez-faire style in which the manager allows employees to manage their own work. No supervision provided. In this, the  individuals should be self-motivated. This can result in disorganization, chaos and lack of direction. Finally, in Paternalistic style the manager makes the decision to benefit the employees. Manager treats employees like children. In this style, the employees become dependent on their manager (Liebler & McConnell, 2012). Management Theory and Style suits our Organization In our organization, there is no one management style that fits to all situations. In my observation, the manager’s shifts form one style to another when they face different groups and situations. When it comes to the policies and procedures, in my observation it is bureaucratic style, top level managers are following autocratic management style, and my immediate manager has a participative style who consults with the employees for decision making. So far I have not encountered any Laissez-faire management style in our place. In the new hire orientation managers follow paternalistic style. For a successful manager, the management style depends on the given situation. If a work environment does not require any close supervision, the managers may select any styles. When employees are unskilled, autocratic style is most efficient. In the current world, changes impacts the manager’s task. It includes economic and political uncertainty, ethical issues, security threats, and changing technology. All these call for different management styles depends on the manager’s involvement. Changes towards Organizational Advancement Organizations deal with challenges in this worldwide economic climate, changing technology and increased globalization. A manager should understand the critical issues and use skills and abilities during challenging times in an organization. A great manager can change your life, encourage employees professionally and personally, energize people to overcome challenges and instill team spirit. Such a manager can make job enjoyable and productive. Manager should create an environment in which the organization members can work to the best of their abilities and think creatively. In order to make the organization better people should support, coach, and find meaning and fulfilment in work. Also have up-to-date information about the new innovative ideas. It is important to be competitive and sustain in the  business world. Develop the networking ability, communicate effectively and be sincere and genuine with others (Coutler & Robbins, 2012). Conclusion In conclusion as we have seen in any organizational performance, managerial ability is very important in creating organizational values. Different management theories and styles range from prohibiting staff from making any decisions to fully delegating the decision-making power. No management style is consistently effective. Situational factors should be taken into consideration in the selection of an effective and efficient management style. The study of organizational theories and management styles is essential in this modern organizational, working environment. References: Chron. (2014). Organizational Theory. Retrieved from http://http:www.smallbusiness.chron/organizational-theory. Coulter, M. & Robbins, S.P. (2012). Management. (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Jones, J. (2006). How to Analyze an Organizational Structure. Retrieved from http://www.smallbusiness.chron.com/analyze-organizational-structure-11818.html. Liebler, J.G. & McConnell C.R. (2012). Management Principles for Health Professionals. (6th ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Developing a Marketing Research Proposal

Marketing Research Professor Tom Tafolla Midterm Exam Developing a Marketing Research Proposal 84179 Marketing Research Proposal Kraft Food Healthy Snack Product Development for 50+ Market Introduction For years, Kraft Foods are hiring experts to conduct lengthy studies on a product's marketability, visual and taste, all to sell you more foods stuffed with sugar, fat and salt. Now Kraft Food is blamed by publics it only cares about consumers' personal taste, but not personal health, especially for the aged people.Since baby boomer is a uge population in the US and nave a strong purchasing power, they are trying to save their losing competitiveness in this huge market. Therefore Kraft Food's product development department is seeking a research service consultant to conduct baby boomer market, to discover new product opportunities of healthy snacks. Research Objectives The objectives of this research are: 1 . To understand how baby boomers make snack purchase decisions and choices. 2. To learn who are the key influencer in snack consumption decisions in baby boomer market 3.To gain insights into the obstacles to choosing Kraft Food product 4. To understand what health considerations exist in baby boomer market Marketing Challenges and Opportunities Challenges: 1 . Kraft Food products' images are deeply rooted in the hearts of people's mind, which is tasty, satisfying your bliss point, but not very healthy. 2. Snack is usually designed for leisure time between meals; people seldom consider its health value. Opportunities: 1. Baby boomer is a huge market and has strong purchasing power 2. The lack of healthy snack market 3.If consumer is looking for an easy way to eat healthy, without having to change their daily routine too drastically, snacks should be a good entry point. Information Coverage Information for this research will be collected according to the following hierarchy of needs: 1. Baby boomer group information 2. Healthy food information Research Design P rimary Research: 1 . In store observation: baby boomer's purchasing routine and behavior on snacks. Healthy considerations while making choice. 2. In home interview: baby boomer's eating routine on snacks

Curbing Unemployment Through Skills Acquisition

Curbing Unemployment through Skills Acquisition: A Study of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE), Kaduna State By AMUPITAN, Oboromeni Federal University, Lokoja Nigeria January, 2011. ABSTRACT The paper â€Å"Curbing Unemployment through Skills acquisition: A case of the National Directorate of Employment (NDE)†Kaduna State is about unemployment and how it can be reduced through skills acquisition. This work is aimed at finding out how the NDE has reduced unemployment through its skills acquisition programme.Data was collected from both primary and secondary sources which include published and unpublished works, journals, internet, questionnaires and interviews. The systematic sampling method was used in determining the sample size of 150 respondents, statistical tables was used in data analysis while the Average Mean Score method was used for the test of the hypothesis formulated. The formulated hypothesis which states â€Å"that inadequate skills acquisition has led to an increase in graduate unemployment in Kaduna State† was Accepted.It was discovered and also recommended that skills acquisition is an effective tool in reducing graduate unemployment. Thus, specific skills acquisition schemes should be included in the curriculum of post-secondary schools to help make graduates self employed. INTRODUCTION 1. 1Background of the Study Unemployment is no longer an alien word to the world’s populace. Even the western world experienced a notable rise in their unemployment rate, as the official unemployment rate in the 16 European countries that use the euro rose to 10% in December, 2009. Deutsche. 2010) Developed countries which hitherto experienced full employment are presently affected. The situation in Nigeria is quite alarming as the unemployment rate tends to be on a perpetual rise. In nations, most especially, developing countries like Nigeria unemployment serves as a major yardstick for development as was rightly portrayed in Dud ley Seers definition of development. Seers (1969) asserted that: The questions to ask about a country’s development are therefore: what has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to inequality?What has been happening to unemployment? If all three of these have declined from high level, then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned. If one or two of these central problems have been worse especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result â€Å"development† even if per capita income doubled. As a result of this consequence and the rising rate of unemployment, the Federal Government of Nigeria established a committee in 1986 to proffer solution to the menace (unemployment).The committee’s recommendations formed the basis for the establishment of the â€Å"National Directorate of Employment† in 1986 established to curb and reduce the rate of unemployment through skills acquisition, self employm ent and labour intensive work scheme. 1. 2Statement of the Problem The International Labour Organisation feels â€Å"occurs when a person is available and willing to work but currently without work†. It is unfortunate that such occurrence is prevalent in the nation. Ake opined that â€Å"unemployment remains the greatest challenge of the economic wellbeing of the Nigerian Nation† (Daily Trust Newspaper, Jan. , 2010 Pg. 34) Unemployment rate has been of immense interest to the general public and policy makers. The Small and Medium Enterprise Development Agency of Nigeria (SMEDAN) was established in 2003 to promote the development of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) sector of the Nigeria economy. It is to source, process and disseminate business information, develop policy, establish business support programmes build capacity and promote services, enhance MSME access to finance. The question is: how may Micro Small and Medium Enterprises have emerged from this scheme?The recent crisis in the financial sector which has led to a ban on loan is an obvious limitation to this scheme. Should our graduates then become unemployed because banks are not giving out loans? Another of such programme is the Nigerian Agricultural Co-operative and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB) Limited which is dedicated to financing agriculture at both micro and macro levels, they are to provide affordable financial and advisory services to the farm and non-farm enterprises of the Nigeria economy using well trained and highly motivated staff, back by appropriate technology.If the NACRDB provided such assistance on time and make their procedures less cumbersome, many people would have been attracted to the scheme. But ironically, such funds more often than not are eventually made available at the end of the farming season. Also programmes such as (the Directorate for food, Roads and Rural Infrastructures otherwise known as (DFRRI), Mass Mobilization Self Reliance and Ec onomic Reconstruction (MAMSER) and the National Agricultural Land Development Project (NALDA) created by the Babangida regime were all scraped by the Abacha regime.During the 1980’s there was a global recession which became progressively worse for Nigeria because of the inherent weakness in the economy. The sudden reduction in oil prices led to cuts in government expenditure budgets leading to a reduction in employment opportunities especially school leavers. Hence, in order to curb the menace of the rising unemployment rate and considering its political and socio-economic implication; which includes a general increase in crime rates, such as armed robbery, youth restiveness, political thuggery, alcoholism, vandalization of petroleum pipes and electricity cables and prostitution.Economic wastage such as excessive loss of output which manifests in a reduction of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and gross underutilization of Human Resources were reasons which led to the establishme nt of the National Directorate of Employment in 1986 to create employment for the teaming unemployed. Unfortunately, unemployment has either been on the rise or fluctuating, this is reflective in the various unemployment rates. As at 1985, unemployment rate was 8. 5%; 14. % in 2005 and as at December, 2009 it became 19. 7% (Wikipedia Encyclopedia). Is the National Directorate of employment living up to its mandate or are there other factors that affect unemployment? This, the researcher seeks to find out. Hence, this study seeks to find out how the National directorate of Employment has helped in reducing unemployment through skills acquisition programmes. 1. 3Objectives of the Study 1) To determine the causes of unemployment in Nigeria. ) To find out whether skills acquisition will help curb unemployment to the barest minimum. 3) To proffer possible solutions to the problems being faced by the National Directorate of Employment and make recommendations that will help improve the Di rectorate. 1. 4 Hypothesis Tested The following hypothesis was formulated: That inadequate skills acquisition has led to an increase in graduate unemployment in Kaduna state. 1. 5Significance of the StudyThe study would provide vital information on the reduction of unemployment through skills acquisition; thereby helping not just students of public administration but the general public, policy makers and politicians, who are either affected in one way or the other or charged with the task of making developmental policies to set their priorities right. On the whole, the work would also add to knowledge. 1. 6Scope and Limitation This study is limited to the graduate scheme of the National directorate of Employment, Kaduna state.Focus was on two local governments, that is, Zaria and Kaduna north, mainly because they contain the highest proportion of graduate beneficiaries. The time frame used is 2005 to 2009. 1. 7Methodology Data for this study was collected from both primary and secon dary sources, which include textbooks, journals, newspapers, article, and the brochure of National Directorate of Employment, National Directorate of Employment annual reports, file documents, internet, and publication, among others.Primary data were sourced mainly from questionnaires administered to both staff and beneficiaries of the National Directorate of Employment. Population and Sample Size Two local governments (Zaria, and Kaduna South) were picked as the focus basically because they have the highest amount of graduate beneficiaries. Thus, 150 questionnaires were administered to both members of staff and beneficiaries. The Systematic Sampling method in which 1 respondent was picked out of every 8 respondents was used. This gave a sample size of 150 respondents out of the total population size of 1200 people.The total population size includes both beneficiaries and staff is 1200. The data collected were analysed using descriptive statistical techniques i. e. Average mean scor e and tables will form the basic analytical tools. LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2. 1Discussion of Related Concepts 2. 1. 1Unemployment Unemployment as defined by the International Labour Organisation â€Å"occurs when a person is available and willing to work but currently without work. Thus ILO agrees that only a person who is willing and available to work can be referred to as unemployed.This implies that not everybody who is not working is unemployed, To Colander D. C. unemployment occurs when people are looking for a job and cannot find one. This further concurs with the earlier definition where there is a conscious effort by the person or people seeking employment, but fails to point out if the person or people in question have something doing or not, because some people who are working seek new jobs. Form the foregoing definitions, one is forced to ask if anybody willing and available to work could be termed unemployed, evened if the person is a child.To this F rank R. et al defined unemployment as â€Å"adults not holding a job but looking for one. † Who then is an adult? An adult is one who is 18 years and above, therefore the definition could be said to be â€Å"Anyone who is 18 years and above who is not holding a job but looking for one could be termed unemployed. In line with the aforementioned, the Bureau of Labour Statistics USA considers a person who is 16 years or older who has not worked during the preceding week but made some effort to find work (for example, by going to a job interview) in the past four weeks as unemployed.Unemployment in Nigeria has actually become a menace, a vivid picture of which was painted by former executive secretary, National Manpower Board (NMB) Umo when he said at a seminar that â€Å"the problem of unemployment amongst our tertiary gradates is of recent vintage, if situated in a historical perspective, it is not more than two decades since it started, but since then, it has become unabated and cumulative†. To him many young graduates move from long spells of unemployment to high crimes including armed robbery while others have become handy tools for unscrupulous politicians. 2. 1. 2EmploymentThe Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary defines employment as â€Å"the situation in which people have work†. This definition clearly States that when a person has work doing he/she is employed but fails to specify if the person is being paid for the work or not. Operationally, employment could be referred to the act of labour force being temporarily or fully occupied on either wages basis of interest basis for self occupied work. This definition added a new dimension, in that employment could be work based on wages or mere self interest either way, one is employed provided he/she is working.Frank et al defined employment in terms of being employed. To them a person is employed if he or she worked full-time or part-time (even for a few hours) during the past week or is on vacation or sick-leave from a regular job. In a nut shell, employment could be defined as a person who is currently working for wages or self-interest. 2. 1. 3Labour Force Thomas J. H. et al (1970) defines labour force â€Å"as the non-institutional population who are working or looking for work†.That is, it includes the unemployed, employed, proprietors, the self employed and members of the armed forces. To him, the labour force excludes all person engaged exclusively in housework in the homes or attending school, that is, a student, is not a member of the labour force unless he is working in addition to attending school (it is worthy of note that â€Å"non-institutional population† refers to all persons 16 years of age and older including members of the armed services but excluding persons in institutions). 2. 1. 4 Full EmploymentTo Ackely the concept of full employment is a very â€Å"slippery concept† and though â€Å"full employment is not definable nor should it be defined†, believes that Henry Hazlutt, it is worth-while analyzing the various views of economists on full employment. The Classical View The classical economists believed in the existence of full employment in the economy. Full employment to them was a normal situation and any deviation from this was regarded as abnormal. To the classical economists â€Å"unemployment resulted from the rigidity in the wage structure and interference in the working of free market system.This comes in the form of trade union legislation, minimum wage legislation etc. On the other hand, Full employment exists â€Å"when everybody who at the running rate of wages wishes to be employed†. According to Pigou, those who are not prepared to work at the existing wage rate are not unemployed because they are voluntarily unemployed. To them, there should be no possibility of involuntary unemployment in the sense that, people are prepared to work but they do not find work. Accordi ng to the classical economists, the above view only operates in an ideal economy.This far differs from the reality in which involuntary unemployment is prevalent. The Keynesian View To Keynes, full employment means the absence of involuntary unemployment. That is, full employment is a situation in which everybody who wants to work gets work. He assumes that â€Å"with a given organisation, equipment and technique, real wages and the volume of output are uniquely co-related so that, in general, an increase in employment can only occur to the accompaniment of a decline in the rate of wages†.In order to achieve full employment, Keynes advocates increases in effective demand to bring about reduction in real wages. 2. 2Types of Unemployment Economists have distinguished between various types of unemployment which includes Cyclical Unemployment, Frictional Unemployment, Structural Unemployment and Classical Unemployment. The aforementioned types are the most widely accepted by scho lars. Other additional types that are occasionally mentioned are Seasonal unemployment, Hardcore unemployment Migrated unemployment. . 2. 1Cyclical or Keynesian Unemployment Cyclical or Keynesian unemployment is also known as Demand Deficient Unemployment. It occurs when there is not enough aggregated demand in the economy. Cyclical unemployment exists when the number of workers demanded falls short of the number of persons supplied (in the labour force). It gets its name because it varies with the business cycle which consists of alternating periods of booms and depressions. Robert F. et al said it could e likened to the most familiar form of musical chairs, in which the number of chairs is always less than the number of players. The Great Depression of the 1930’s is a striking example of Cyclical unemployment. In Nigeria today, the recent economic in Nigeria recession where supply was more than demand, most especially in the private sector is an example of cyclical unemploy ment. 2. 2. 2Frictional Unemployment Frictional unemployment occurs when a worker moves from one job to another. The time period between jobs is considered â€Å"frictional unemployment†.Frictional unemployment is an example of a productive part of the economy, increasing both the worker’s long term welfare and economic efficiency and is also a type of voluntary unemployment. 2. 2. 3Structural Unemployment Structural unemployment occurs when the numbers of jobs in a labour market are unable to provide substantial jobs for everyone who wants one. 2. 2. 4Classical Unemployment Classical or real-way unemployment occurs when real wages for a job are set above the market clearing level, causing the number of job-seekers to exceed the number of vacancies.Economists like Murray Ruthbard, suggest that even social taboos can prevent wages from falling to the market clearing level. Some economists believe that this type of unemployment can be reduced by increasing the flexibilit y of wages (abolishing minimum wages or employee protection) to make the labour market more like a financial market. This suggestion unfortunately, will lead to massive exploitation on the part of employers most especially in developing countries. 2. 2. 5Seasonal Unemployment Bradley R. S. s of the view that some joblessness is virtually inevitable as long as we continue to grow crops, build houses, or go skiing at certain seasons of the year. At the end of each season thousands of workers go searching for new jobs, thereby experiencing some seasonal unemployment in the process. Like in Nigeria, during the raining season, farmers are actively employed to plough sow, cultivate and harvest crops, this include both the aged and young. It is very common to see rural-urban migrants, return to their rural villages to cultivate during the raining season.And once harvest is over they return to towns to search for menial jobs to carter for their needs. 2. 3Causes of Unemployment in Nigeria T he cost of unemployment in any nation cannot be overemphasized, below are some of the costs identified by eminent scholars: individuals, economists, psychological, social socio-political. Economic Causes i)The Legacy of British Rule The bequest of some Nigerians who had high school education after independent and held job felt to be remunerated with high wages was a right.This made majority of high school graduates at that time expressed their distaste for agriculture and their desires to be â€Å"pen pushers† these people were attracted to white collar jobs which were borrowed from the colonial master. This white collar jobs were unlike agriculture which provides employment for about eighty percent of the population. The colonial government fiscal policy with respect to employment also discouraged new entrants into agriculture which was the major alternative for white collar job.Under the policy, marketing boards were introduced where farmers were heavily taxed by the coloni al government. This made agriculture less appealing and killed the incentive that would have made people wish to take it upon as a carrier. Therefore, the mentality of white collar job was built into individuals Nigerian as a future employment. ii)The Oil Boom Era (1974-1980) Agriculture prior to the exportation of petrol had been the main asset of the economy but was neglected during the oil boom. All sorts of things were imported into the country.The government of the day embarked upon all sorts of â€Å"white elephant:† projects e. g Ajaokuta Steel, building of Refinery, etc instead of investing in property with the windfall from oil. Over reliance on petroleum has till today led to fluctuation in government’s expenditures on unnecessary things and wastage of resource. The sudden slump in the international market for oil makes many projects undertaken especially construction come to stand still. Many employment opportunities were forced to reduce their capabilities. Nigeria found itself in economic mess which it is still battling to salvage. iii)Consumption Pattern This entails the pattern of consumption of Nigerians’ as a relationship to the problem of unemployment. It has contributed to the high level of urban unemployment because the consumption of urban centres’ entails imported goods which attracted more able people from rural areas to search for job in urban centres’. This is due to the fact that Nigerians are to believe their home made goods are inferior.But the more the demand for goods and services from foreign source the more employment we make available to the nationals of those countries and the reverse is the case for Nigeria. Social Causes i)Rural-Urban Migration The flow of labour force from rural to urban area has been a major cause of Nigeria’s unemployment situation. As a result of the neglect of agriculture and great increase in government expenditure during the oil boom era led to the migration of many young people who would have otherwise stayed in the rural areas to practice agriculture as an occupation.Most migrants from rural areas were found to have only primary education with few having six years of secondary education. This led to surplus of unskilled workers and shortage of high level manpower. But now that Nigeria’s economy is producing more and more gradates from her institutions of higher learning, in almost all the metropolitan cities the unemployment problem continues to increase. People unable to get job since urban areas became saturated and unable to absorb every skilled job seekers. Table 1Unemployment Rates, 2003-2007 (as at December) Description| 2003| 2004| 2005| 2006| 2007| National (Composite)| 14. 8| 11. 8| 11. 9| 14. 6| 10. 9| Urban | 17. 1| 11. 0| 10. 1| 10. 0| 10. 0| Rural | 13. 8| 12. 1| 12. 6| 15. 1| 12. 6| Source: National Bureau of Statistics, 2007. From the table above the composite unemployment rate stood at 11. 9% in 2005 compared with 14. 6% in 2006, and 10. 9% in 2007. It also shows that the rural unemployment rate is higher, hence, the reason for migrating to the urban areas in search of greener pastures.Educational Factors The type of educational system inherited from the colonial masters put more emphasis on the production of gradates for white collars jobs at the expense of technical and vocational type. The result is that gradates do not only get unemployed but do not even find â€Å"black – collar† jobs to manage. Government policy with respect to university admission for first degrees in favour of the science as opposed to the arts does not still encourage students to study the science and other technological subjects, which Nigeria lacks.However, the expansion in all educational level ranging from primary to tertiary institutions has contributed more to the unemployment problem. This is because the expansion does not correspond with the job provisioning for future graduates from the numero us schools. Political Causes i)Political Instability Ever since Nigeria got her independence from the British colonial masters in 1960, there has been political instability. A major problem of post independent Nigeria has been conflicts of personalities in politics and unbridled political party rivalries both of which affected government policies in all parts of the country.Apart from the fact that the country had to go through a civil war form 1960 up till 1970. There has also been series of coups which have often resulted in abrupt changes in government up to date like that of June 12, 1993. This political environment which is unstable has negative effects on investment thereby creating problem of unemployment in the country. ii)Migrants from Neighbouring Countries People from neighbouring countries such as; Ghana, Benin Republic, Ivory Coast and Togo move down to Nigeria in search for jobs.They feel that the Nigeria economy is better and more promising. As a result of this the Ni gerian Labour Market cannot absorb all the job seekers, since it has too many factors to contend with. Foreign job seekers especially those from the Economic Community of West Africa States (ECOWAS), those countries are often prepared to accept lower wages than Nigerians for the same type of work. And as employers are looking forward of cutting costs, they have no choice but to absorb these foreign seekers. Socio-Political CausesThe political independence Nigeria got from Great Britain was more of a flag independence and not economic Independence. Nigeria even today remains subservient to the whims and caprices of countries like Britain and United States of America. Despite the effort made to gain total control of the economy through the promulgation of the indigenization decree of 1977, Nigeria’s economy is still dominated by multinational corporations that employ a substantial number of Nigerians, thus, the fact remains that the profit is fleeing Nigeria to foreign countrie s head quarters.The profit flight is supposed to be ploughed back into the country for provision of more jobs and development. Furthermore, external participation in the domestic activities of Nigeria by foreigners which is not reciprocated by similar Nigerian participation in their own domestic affairs militate against development efforts. All these slow down the economic growth and cause unemployment problem. Ethnicity Problem Nigeria is made up of many ethnic groups. Each of this ethnic group had the fear that another group may dominate it.Apart from this, some ethnic groups which tend to be closer to neighbouring countries identify more with the than with other ethnic groups in the country that they are not familiar with. It is a fact that some northern States in Nigeria prefer to recruit Pakistani, Egyptians, and Indian professionals other than Nigerians from other ethnic group. Such discriminatory policies no doubt cause more unemployment in the country. 2. 4Theoretical Framew ork Various scholars have propounded theories relating to employment and unemployment.These include those of the Classical view who believe that full employment was a normal situation and any deviation from this was regarded as abnormal. Okun’s law which was propounded by an American Economist named Arthur Okun (1926-1980) who looked at the US GNP during the 1950s and 1960s. Thus, for the purpose of this work the KEYNESIAN THEORY was adopted. It was propounded by John Maynard Keynes, a British Economist whose ideas have profoundly affected the theory and practice of modern macro economics, social liberalism and economic policies of government. 2. 3. 1TheKeynesian Theory In the Keynesian theory which was propounded in 1936, Keynes argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity, and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. He opined that if aggregate demand is not high enough to sustain full employmen t level of economy, then a gap is created between aggregate demand and aggregate supply known as the deflationary gap. To him this gap must be closed through concerted government programmes if not, the situation could degenerate into chronic unemployment.The Keynesian prescription for reducing unemployment includes the following: 1) Increase in aggregate total demand through direct increase in government expenditure 2) By government policies that indirectly encourage more private investments (e. g. investment subsidies, tax allowances, low investment rates on business loans, establishing of institutions, etc). 2. 3. 2Its Application to this Study Looking at its applicability to this work, the Keynesian theory States that: inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment.It is no longer news in Nigeria that the demand for labour is on the decrease, as industries (e. g. textile) which hitherto where major employers of labour have been closed down due to unfavourable working conditions such as poor electricity supply, financial institutions have been hit by global recessions and the public sector have also resorted to downsizing thus making aggregate demand grossly inadequate thereby leading to a high rate of unemployment. Nigerian unemployment is a typical case of shortage in aggregate demand; the supply by far supersedes the demand.With thousands of graduates leaving the higher institutions each year, the demand for time in the labour market depreciates. To Keynes, if aggregate demand is not high enough to sustain full employment level of the economy, then a gap is created between aggregate demand and aggregate supply known as the deflationary gap. This gap manifests itself in chronic unemployment which is been witnessed in Nigeria, with an unemployment rate of 19. 7% as at December, 2009. He further propounded that this gap must be closed through concerted government programmes so as to avoid unemployment.From the foregoing it i s evident that the Keynesian theory of unemployment not only explains the unemployment problem but has proffered solutions or ways of eradicating it. An Overview of the National Directorate of Employment 3. 1Introduction The worldwide economic depression of the early 80s caused a rapid deterioration in Nigerian’s economy. Industrial output shrank to an all time low and commercial activities were consequently reduced, leading to the loss of employment opportunity for many Nigerians.By the end of 1985 the unemployment situations in Nigeria had reached desperate and alarming proportions (about 8. 5%). In the urban areas, where the educated tend to congregate, the unemployment rate was especially high. In the rural areas, it was no less severe. Graduate unemployment, which hitherto was unnoticed, emerged and was growing rapidly. The effect of such large-scale unemployment spelt disaster for both the society and individual victims. Deviant behaviours expressed in crimes and other anti-social behaviours were frequent among the frustrated youths.The increase in crime rates and riots further created an atmosphere of general insecurity. Unemployed youths were easily susceptible to such manipulations and incitement by unscrupulous elements in the society or even politicians. It is in line with this that president Babangida appointed a committee on 26 March 1986 to deliberate on strategies for dealing with mass unemployment under the auspices of the Federal Ministry of Employment, Labour and Productivity. The report of the Chukwuma committee, as it became popularly known, was approved by the Federal Government in October 1986.Based on its recommendations the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) was established on November 22, 1986 and its initial core programmes were formally launched on 30th January 1987. The president in his 1987 budget speech directed the new body to concentrate its effort on the reactivation of public works, promotion of direct labour, pro motion of self-employment, organisation of artisans into co-operatives, and encouragement of a culture of maintenance and repairs.To ensure effective implementation of the President’s directive, a board of Directors representing a cross section of all interest groups from industry, commerce, agriculture, finance, employers, labour and government was set-up to define policy and supervise operations. This board articulated four (4) practical programmes nationwide, each operating as a separate department. They include: a) National youth Employment and Vocational Skills Development Programme. b) Small scale industries and graduate employment programme. c) Agriculture sector employment programme d) Special public works programmes.These programmes were backed by the necessary administrative, monitoring and support personnel, thus enabling optimum use of resources and prompt response to the requirement of the public. 3. 2Objectives of the National Directorate of Employment The objec tives of the NDE were clearly Stated in Decree No. 24 of 1989 [i. e. NDE Decree (1989)] section 2 of the Decree provides for the objectives of the directorate. Thus, the NDE mandate is as follows: i) To design and implement programmes to combat mass unemployment. ii) To articulate policies aimed at developing programmes with labour intensive potentials. ii) To obtain and maintain a data bank of employment and vacancies in the country with a view to acting as a clearing house to link job seekers with vacancies. iv) To implement any other policies as may be laid down from time to time by the Board established under section 3 of its enabling act. NDE’s main function is to combat mass unemployment through skills acquisition, self-employment and labour-intensive work scheme. 4. 1Summary of discussions and findings It is no longer news that salaried jobs can no longer cater for the teaming graduates turned into the labour market from various higher institutions in Nigeria.This has led to the search of alternative means of lively hood. One of such is the acquisition of specific skills to make graduates self-employed. It is against this backdrop that the hypothesis which States, â€Å"That skills acquisition is a prerequisite to a reduction in graduate unemployment in Kaduna State† was formed. In order to ascertain the hypothesis above, respondents were asked questions bordering on their level of acquisition vis-a-vis unemployment. The questions were answered by checking one position on two point scale of â€Å"Yes and No†. 4. 1. 1SkillsAcquired apart from Western Education Here respondents were asked if they have acquired any skill apart from the regularly western education. The responses gotten are shown in table 4. 1 below: Table 4. 1 Acquisition of Special Skills apart from Western Education Response| No. of Respondents| Percentage| Yes | 86| 59. 7| No| 58| 40. 3| Total | 144| 100| Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2010. The table above indi cates that 86 respondents representing 59. 7% have acquired specific skills other than the western education while 58 respondents which represent 40. 3% have not.This shows that specific skills acquisition is not alien to graduates in Kaduna State. 4. 1. 2Self Employment The respondents were further asked if they were presently self-employed. The following were the responses gotten: Table 4. 2: Self Employment Response| No. of Respondents| Percentage| Yes | 55| 38. 2| No| 89| 61. 8| Total | 144| 100| Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2010. Table 4. 13 depicts that 38. 2% of the respondents are self employed while 61. 8% are not. This shows that some respondents are utilizing the skills they have acquired. 4. 1. 3Nature of Self EmploymentThe respondents who claimed to be self-employed were asked to specify the nature of their self-employment and the following responses were gotten. i) Fashion designing ii) Farming iii) Electrical works iv) Wood work/carpentry v) Mechanized farming vi) Forest trading 4. 1. 4Acquisition of Specific Skills by Graduates in Kaduna State Many people agree that depending solely on salaried jobs is not the best. Thus, people should learn to acquire alternative sources of income. Hence, the respondents were asked: Do you think that most graduates in Kaduna State have acquired necessary skills to make them self employed?Their responses are given below. Table 4. 3: Acquisition of Special Skills by Graduates in Kaduna State Response| No. of Respondents| Percentage| Yes | 36| 25| No| 108| 75| Total | 144| 100| Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2010. The table above shows that 36 respondents signifying 25% agreed that graduates in Kaduna State posses the necessary skill of being self employed while 108 respondents representing 75% were of the contrary view. , this shows that most gradates in Kaduna State have not acquired necessary specified skills to be self employed. 4. 1. 5Self Employment an Alternative to Salaried JobThe respondents were further asked if they agreed that self-employed in an alternative to salaried jobs. The following responses in table 4. 15 below were gotten. Table 4. 4: Employment an Alternative to salaried Jobs Response| No. of Respondents| Percentage| Yes | 136| 94. 4| No| 8| 5. 6| Total | 144| 100| Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2010. The table above indicates that 94. 4% of the respondents agreed that self-employment is an alternative to salaried jobs while 5. 6% do not agree that it is an alternative. Based on the responses gotten, it clearly shows that most people take self-employment as an alternative to salaried jobs. . 1. 6Skills Acquisition Schemes Established by the Government and Self Employment In a bid to make people become self-employed, government has put in place various schemes among which is the NDE. Thus, respondents were asked if the skills acquisition schemes put in place by the government have helped beneficiaries to become self-employed. The following were the res ponses gotten Table 4. 5: Skills Acquisition Schemes and Self Employment. Response| No. of Respondents| Percentage| Yes | 120| 83. 3| No| 24| 16. 7| Total | 144| 100| Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2010. From table 4. 16 above, 120 respondents representing 83. % agreed that the skills acquisition schemes put in place by government have helped beneficiaries to become self-employed while 24 respondents representing 16. 7% disagreed. 4. 1. 7Inclusion of Specific Skills Acquisition Programme in Post-Secondary School Curriculum With regards to specific skills acquisition, respondents were asked if skills acquisition programmes be included in Post-secondary schools’ curriculum and the following responses were gotten: Table 4. 6: Inclusion of specific skills acquisition programmes in post-secondary school curriculum Response| No. of Respondents| Percentage| Yes | 140| 97. 2| No| 4| 2. 8|Total | 144| 100| Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2010. For table 4. 17 above, 140 respo ndents representing 97. 2% opined that specific skills acquisition programmes should be included in all post-secondary schools curriculum while 4 respondents representing 2. 8% held a contrary opinion. 4. 1. 8 Opinions about Skills Acquisition Schemes in Nigeria Respondents were asked to state their opinion on the skills acquisition schemes put in place by government and the following opinions/views were gotten: i) That the skills acquisition schemes have helped reduced unemployment not only in Kaduna State but in the country as a whole; ii)That loan should be made available to the unemployed so that they can utilize both funds and skills together; iii) That skills acquisitions schemes should be fully implemented so that it’s aims and objectives can be accomplished; iv) That skills acquisition scheme should be well funded; v) It was also expressed that the skills acquisition schemes in Nigeria is too small compared to the population of the unemployed, thereby making it insign ificant; vi) That, the skills acquisition schemes are sub-standard and need to be improved so that it can compete with those in other nations; vii) That skills acquisition helps graduate to become self employed; viii) That for skills acquisitions to succeed an adequate system that ensures the monitoring and evaluation of the scheme must be put in place; ix) That the skills acquisition schemes have been bedeviled by poor management plan, indiscipline and corruption; x) That the culture of skill acquisition should be inculcated into the citizens right form primary schools; Finally, that there should be more awareness and funding of the schemes available The table below shows a summary of the questions asked and responses gotten. 4. 2Test of Hypothesis using the Average Mean Score Method. The average mean score was used to test the Hypothesis which States: â€Å"That inadequate skills acquisition has led to an increase in graduate unemployment in Kaduna State†. Formular: X = ? p x where X=Average mean score ?p=Summation of percentages x=Total number of variablesDecision Rule: Accept Ho if average means score is 60% and above, reject Ho if average means score is less than 60%. Variables 1) Acquisition of specific skills other than western education 2) Self employment 3) Acquisition of specific skills by graduates in Kaduna State. 4) Self employment and alternative to salaried jobs 5) Skills acquisition schemes and self-employment 6) Skills acquisition and post secondary curriculum Table 4. 7: Highest Responses Variables | Responses | 1| 59. 7% of the respondents opined that they have acquired specific skills other than western education. | 2| 61. 8% of the respondents said they were not self employed. 3| 70% of the respondents were of the view that most graduates in Kaduna State have not acquired specific skills. | 4| 94. 4% of the respondents agreed that self-employment is an alternative to salaried jobs. | 5| 83. 3% of the respondents agree that skills ac quisition schemes have made their beneficiaries self employed. | 6| 97. 2% of the respondents agreed that specific skills acquisition programmes should be included in post-secondary school curriculum. | Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2010. No. of Variables Percentages 159. 7 261. 8 375 494. 4 583. 3 697. 2 Total 6471. 4 ?p=471. 4= 78. 6% x 6 X = 78. 6% From the above calculation the average mean score of the Hypothesis is 78. 6%.Going by the decision rule which States that Accept Ho if average mean score is 60% and above, our Ho which States; â€Å"that inadequate skills acquisition has led to an increase in graduate unemployment in Kaduna State† is Accepted. This implies that adequate skills acquisition will lead to a decrease in graduate unemployment in Kaduna State. 4. 3Major Findings It was discovered that Skills Acquisition is an effective tool in the reduction of graduate unemployment in Kaduna State. The researcher found out that most unemployed graduates in Kadun a State will opt for self-employment through the acquisition of specific skills, rather than wait for the non-existent salaried jobs. The researcher found out that â€Å"skill acquisition schemes† when effectively implemented will go a long way to reducing graduate unemployment not just in Kaduna State but in Nigeria as a whole.It was also discovered that skills acquisition gives birth to small scale enterprise which in turn boost individual and national economy. As in the case of developed nations like China, Japan and even USA who started from small scale enterprises and they are world powers today. Thus, the importance of skills acquisition in unemployment reduction and by extension poverty reduction cannot be over-emphasized. 5. 1Conclusions and Recommendations As established by the study, the importance of skills acquisition cannot be overemphasized. Thus, it is recommended that learning of specific skills should be inculcated into the curriculum of the post-secondary sc hools of not just Kaduna State but Nigeria as a whole irrespective of the course of study.In developed countries like the USA courses are courses such as fashion designing, automobile repairs, traffic control, animal husbandry, typesetting, catering, horticulture, swimming, memo writing, satellite installation, wood work and even cooking are included in formal school curriculum. Such compulsory electives should be imbibed in the nation thereby creating the spirit of entrepreneurship. There should be a diversification in the activities of the National Directorate of Employment. New challenging and innovative skills should be introduced from time to time. This will make it more enticing appealing for gradates to enrol, as young people like to explore new grounds. Also, specific organisation or institution should be established with the sole aim of tackling graduate unemployment.Since unemployment cuts across various barriers (gender, class, age) and the National Directorate of Employm ent which is saddled with combating unemployment cannot effectively manage graduate unemployment as its resources (time, finance) are divided among other classes. Thus, giving more attention to graduate unemployment by establishing a body with the mandate of combating graduate unemployment will go a long way. References Bradley R. Schiller (2004) The Macro Economy Today 9th ed: New Delhi; McGraw Hill Irwin Companies. D. Rudiger et al (2004): Macro Economics: New Delhi; Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. David C. Colonader (2001) Macro Economics 4th ed. : New York; McGraw-Hill Irwin.Euro-Zone Unemployment Climbs to 10 percent High Deutsche Welle. January 29, 2010. F. Onosode (1993): The Decades of Development Crises in Nigeria Essays. Ikeja: Malthouse Press Ltd. F. A. Hayek, The Constitution of Liberty:www. google. com G. Umoden (1992): The Babangida Year: Ikoyi-Lagos; Gabumo Publishing Company ltd. http://atext. ap[lia. com/controller/apliatext. aspx International Labour Organisat ion: Resolution concerning statistics of the economically active population, employment, unemployment and underemployment, adopted by the thirteenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians (Oct. 1982) pg. 4. Jhingan M. L. (2004) Principles of Economics. 2nd ed. : India; Vrinda Publication Ltd.National Bureau of Statistics, Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaire Newswise, Retrieved on October 27, 2008. National Directorate of Employment (2006) Brochure. Kaduna State Office. Richard A. (2007): â€Å"Fact Sheet on the Impact of Unemployment (PDF) Virginia Teach, Department of Economics USA. Robert F. e al (2001): Principles of Economics: India; McGraw-Hill Publishers S. Dudley (1969): The Meaning of Development. Eleventh Conference of the Society for International Development, New Delhi India. Wikipedia Encyclopaedia. www. econlog. econlib. org/archieves/2009 www. google. com www. uo. org/public. /english/bureau/stat/dpownload/ res/ecacpop. pdf

Second Analytical Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Second Analytical Paper - Essay Example It was easier for Gilbert to use his power over African settlers because of the superiority he felt for them. With the use of colonialism, and with the proper methods that he introduced to the settlers, he was able to gain the confidence of the native Africans, consequently building for him a place in the social strata in Africa and establishing a position of power and superiority. Gilbert is from a more developed country thus is educated with more advanced farming methods. England is a developed country with all the advantages of the United Kingdom and all the influence over its neighboring countries. England also keeps the education being given in schools and universities at par with global standards that makes the graduates of the country viable for any premier company. England sees to it that it produces citizens who not only are able to provide for him but is also able to work from different settings. Citizens coming from England like Gilbert are trained under rigorous circumstances to be able to adapt to the situation they are put against so that they will not face any difficulties. The presence of high tech resources and internationally acclaimed gadgets for demonstration purposes as well as for real world problems make them highly knowledgeable in terms of the recent innovations in technology. This Gilbert used in his colonialism strategy in Africa. While he was an average individual in England, he was a highly skilled person in the eyes of Africans, thus making him a man more than he really as. Coming from a country of wealth and power makes controlling poor countries easier. Gilbert was a man who was accustomed to the vestiges of success and competition. England is a highly revered country that is able to use its available resources for the betterment of its colonies. England is also a country that claims to take initiative to take under its wings countries that need support in terms of technical

Family Centered Care Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Family Centered Care Case Study - Essay Example This ideology draws on theoretical backgrounds in the humanistic approach in nursing as well as the interpersonal approach also. The current scenario in this literature follows a case study where a family member has died in ICU quite suddenly and despite the high quality of care the nurses who were in charge of the patient have given there was no reliable way to tell the patient was not going to make it. Thus the proponent of care and concern falls on paying considerable attention to the family's needs following this unforeseen event. There is agreement that patients with life-threatening illnesses, including progressive malignancies, need appropriate therapy and treatment throughout the course of illness. At one stage, therapy is directed toward assessment and intervention in order to control and/or to cure such illness and alleviate associated symptoms. For some persons, however the time comes when cure and remission are beyond current medical expertise. It is then that the intervention must shift to what is now often termed 'palliative treatment,' which is designed to control pain in the broadest sense and provide personal support for patients and family during the terminal phase of illness. In general, palliative care requires limited use of apparatus and technology, extensive personal care, and an ordering of the physical and social environment to be therapeutic in itself. Th There are, as it were, two complementary systems of treatment which may often overlap: One system is concerned with eliminating a curable disease and the other with relieving the symptoms resulting from the relentless progress of an incurable illness. There must be openness, interchange, and overlap between the two systems so that the patient receives continuous appropriate care. The patient should not be subjected to aggressive treatment that offers no hope of being effective in curing or controlling the disease and may only cause further distress. Obviously, the clinician must be on the alert for any shifts that may occur in the course of a terminal illness, which make the patient again a candidate for active treatment. Patients suffer not only from inappropriate active care, but also from inept terminal care. This is well documented by studies that only confirm what dying patients and their families know at first hand. These principles have been prepared as an aid to those who ha ve initiated or are planning programs for the terminally ill in delineating standards of care. General Assumptions and Principles in the Care and Commitment to the Terminally Ill Patient and the Family The care of the dying is a process involving needs of the patient, family, and caregivers. The interaction of these three groups of individuals must constantly be assessed with the aim being the best possible care of the patient. This cannot be accomplished, however, if the needs of the family and/or caregiver are negated (Dickenson & Johnson 1993, pg. 76). The problems of the patient-family facing terminal illness include a wide variety of issues: psychological, legal, social, spiritual, economic, and interpersonal. Care requires collaboration of many disciplines working as an integrated clinical team, meeting for frequent discussions, and with commonness of purpose. Dying tends to produce a feeling

The Leadership Challenges Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Leadership Challenges - Essay Example The purpose of this paper is to discuss the managerial challenges that organizations face today and to discuss different leadership theories that can be used by leaders. One of the toughest challenges for leaders is managing a diverse workforce. Diversity can be defined as the inclusion of different types of people in a workforce which includes differences due to race, age, sex, gender, sexual orientation, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs, and other ideologies (Uoregon). To properly lead a diverse workforce a manager must apply good communication skills and the person must be conscious of the differences that make each employee unique. â€Å"Learning to respect and appreciate each other’s cultural and stylistic differences and becoming aware of unconscious assumptions and behaviors that may influence our interactions will enable us to minimize the challenges and derive maximum benefits from diversity† (Wisc). A good leader is a person that is able to motivate his staff to ensure the employees provide maximum effort and performance. A leader must have excellent verbal and written communication skills as well as being an active listener. The leader must have good interpersonal skills and be able to deal with any conflict that occurs in the workplace. Personal conflicts between employees are a tough leadership challenge that must be dealt with. An understanding of the different conflict resolution techniques such as smoothing, collaboration, compromise, avoidance, and authoritative command is needed to solve problems quickly before they become a constraint that hurts the performance and profitability of the enterprise. The use of leadership models and theories can help leaders understand better how to properly implement leadership in the workplace. The behavioral leadership perspective assumes that leadership is central to performance and other outcomes. Based on this theory the leader must

Villa Building and Construction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8000 words

Villa Building and Construction - Essay Example The bungalow will be of plinth area of 6800 sq ft, accommodating 4 bedrooms, two in the ground floor of 21.5 ft x 23 ft and 19.5 ft x 20 ft dimensions and two in the first floor of 21 ft x 23 ft and 19.5 x 20 ft dimensions, all with bath, closets attached, Great Room - Living, Dining and Kitchen of 30 ft x 40 ft , with two stone fire places, cherry cabinets and big screen HDTV,two wet bars with sit outs annexed, and a basement area with provision for physical work out and indoor games. Project scope defines what the project is going to accomplish as related to its budget. Budget includes time and money. It covers project size, goals, and requirements. Should there arise a change in the scope, corresponding change in the budget becomes inevitable. For example, if the project scope is to construct the servant's quarters with a budget of $ 50,000, then the project manager is expected to do that. Just in case, the project manager is asked to change the specifications of the quarters, say, adding another room in the servant's quarters, then the project scope gets changed. The budget is also to be changed correspondingly. From these quotes, one can understand that Quality in any situation is meeting the user's expectation. ... In our project the following can be classified as cycled activities: 1. Think tank meetings, involving reviews and revisions 2. Building construction work, at different stages. 1.04 Typical non-cycled activities Typical non cycled activities in our project are 1. Buying of land for construction of villa 2. Buying of furnishings at the final stage. Complete the following questions: 1.05 Describe the following broad project objectives: Scope. Project scope defines what the project is going to accomplish as related to its budget. Budget includes time and money. It covers project size, goals, and requirements. Should there arise a change in the scope, corresponding change in the budget becomes inevitable. For example, if the project scope is to construct the servant's quarters with a budget of $ 50,000, then the project manager is expected to do that. Just in case, the project manager is asked to change the specifications of the quarters, say, adding another room in the servant's quarters, then the project scope gets changed. The budget is also to be changed correspondingly. Scope of this project is to build a Villa of 6800 sq ft plinth area, on a budgeted cost of $ 3,000,000 to be completed in 17 months. Quality "Quality is fitness for use" - J.M. Juran "Quality is meeting or exceeding customer expectations at a cost that represents a value to them." - H. James Harrington "Quality should be defined as surpassing customer needs and expectations throughout the life of the product." - Howard Gitlow and Shelley Gitlow [Neville Turbit, (Sept 2004) 08-03-2009()] From these quotes, one can understand that Quality in any situation is meeting the user's expectation. If one

Controversy between Safe and Pure Drinking Water Essay

Controversy between Safe and Pure Drinking Water - Essay Example Health impacts of some of the contaminants in drinking water are not clear; however, the availability of contaminants does not always mean that they will harm an individual’s health. The basis for determining safe drinking water is the national or international guideline, with the significant one being the WHO guideline for quality of drinking water. Drinking water can be obtained from two basic sources, which include surface water like reservoirs and rivers, and groundwater. Water has natural contaminants, especially inorganic contaminants from geological strata upon which water flows, and different microorganisms and chemical pollution. Generally, ground water is less susceptible to pollution compared to surface waters that are prone to various sources of fabricated contaminants. Moreover, in case there are no improved water management, the unhealthy residues of substances used in its treatment can lead to pollution, giving rise to presence of deposits in water pipes. In add ition, contamination of drinking water can occur during the distribution of water arising from materials like iron, which corrodes and releases iron oxides into the supply system. Diffusion process taking place in plastic pipes may result in contamination of drinking water; for example, split oil in the surrounding area may result in water problems concerning its taste and smell. Drinking water treatment applied in public water supply includes a series of treatments that vary in accordance with the requirements of supply and nature and susceptibility of the source. Water treatments comprises of systems that coagulate, flocculate, filter and oxidise drinking water. The common oxidative disinfectant is chlorine and it provides effective and robust protection against pathogens. Standards upon which the safety of drinking water is gauged are revised regularly and supported by detailed documents that describe the various aspects of safety (Larason). Pathogen contamination of drinking wat er causes diarrhoea disease and is a significant characteristic of the drinking water quality. This problem is a result of water contamination by faecal substance, particularly human faecal substance comprising of pathogenic organisms. Many regions in developing countries, pathogens remain a significant cause disease. Therefore, breaking the faecal-oral cycle is crucial by preventing the entry of faecal matter into water sources and treating drinking water in order to kill pathogens. Nevertheless, such approach needs to function alongside hygiene practices like hand washing, which helps reduce the chances of person-to-person infection. Detecting and enumerating pathogens in water is not appropriate in many circumstances because of the difficulties and resources necessary; therefore, only two kinds of pathogen are used as indicators for faecal contamination. There is the assumption that once the indicators are detected, pathogens like viruses could be presents; thus, the appropriate action is necessary. Nevertheless, the time taken in analysing the sample means that if there is contamination then, the contaminated water will get to the consumers and probably it will be consumed by the time the analysis results are obtained. Moreover, the small volume of water sample implies that monitoring is not adequate for ensuring safe drinking water (Workshop on Emerging Drinking Water Contaminants, National Research Council 202). The most serious contaminants of water are chemicals that occur naturally and they are found in groundwater. Waterborne contaminants bring about disease in

Entry for Graduate Program Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Entry for Graduate Program - Essay Example aw enforcement officer with close to three years of professional experience, I know that a graduate degree will invaluably contribute to my professional development. I have worked in, and with, all of the Fishkill village Police Department, the NYPD, the NY Special Enforcement Bureau and the United States Secret Service and, can confidently assert that I have no doubts that law enforcement is my preferred career choice. While acknowledging that many before me, as shall many after me, have said this, as a law enforcement officer I feel fulfilled. My sense of fulfillment and satisfaction come from my awareness that I am doing my part to make life in this country just a little but safer. On a personal level, while I believe that all Americans must contribute to the increased security and safety of their society, a select few, this nation’s law enforcement officers, must devote their lives to this goal. As a foreign-born American citizen, the protection of this country and all tha t it stands for, from crime, is especially meaningful. It is meaningful because it represents my way of trying to give something back to this country and her people. I am fully cognizant of the fact that the United States is hardly short of law enforcement officers and realize that this is hardly an easy career. Nevertheless, after much soul-searching, I discovered that this is where my career interests lie. Certainly, one does not need a graduate degree in Criminology to be a law enforcement officer but, given the nation-wide crime rate, it is imperative that those who enter this profession law have a solid academic grounding. Indeed, what distinguishes one law enforcement officer from another is his/her grasp of the aforementioned. It is because of my personal determination to become an effective law enforcement officer, one who can play a role in crime deterrence or reduction that I have decided to pursue a graduate degree. On a more pragmatic level, my decision is further

Engineering communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Engineering communication - Essay Example This will definitely lead to higher levels of enrollment of graduates due to increased numbers of students joining the institution. Operating hours-The free transport will be offered at regular intervals during the day. A regular interval of three hours starting from (0800-2200hrs) will be introduced to ensure every person`s need is catered for. This will let students have more time to study especially in the mornings because they will no longer have to trek to educational facilities like the library and lecture halls. Bus stops-The buses will make stops at various academic buildings, staff facilities, graduates residences, undergraduate residences and certain shopping centers. The stops at shopping centers will be essential as it will let students do some shopping and save them costs of hiring taxi`s. These stops will mainly be carried out at the evening hours of the day (1800-2200hrs). Costs-To be effective, the buses should be low –floor, fully accessible and run on biodiesel fuel due to many trips they are to make everyday. This will avert many costs because the buses consume readily available form of fuel extracted from plants which are readily available in the country. This is a better source of cleaner energy that is less pollutant to the environment. Safety-To ensure safety of every person, every person should produce a form of identification showing that he or she is eligible to board the bus. Then a search is to be conducted to person`s boarding the bus using a special equipment to detect any an unallowable devices that may be used to threaten the security of persons in the bus. Furthermore, the buses should be equipped with global positioning instruments to track positions of buses at any time to prevent mismanagement and control usage. Also the buses should have regular inspections for them to be compliant to operate on the roads. They should have an insurance cover too. Drivers and other

Solving Eating Difficulty in Children Essay Example for Free

Solving Eating Difficulty in Children Essay Eating difficulty is an issue that is so fundamental and often case to children. Sometimes, when a child is so difficult to chew food invited to make us frustrated. Since then, usually we will try a variety of ways like providing herbal appetite enhancers and hunting childs favorite foods every day. The matters the child eating disorder also intrigued our interest to make an article about tips to overcome the difficult child to eat. Here are the details. Serve meals with small portions. Maybe the kid does not like the size of your portions that so reluctant to eat the food there. Many children are ilfeel after seeing a sizable portion. So, try to give a little so that they can eat faster and do not get bored in spend food. Get together with family Do not let children eat alone and we need to create an atmosphere of togetherness when the child was time to eat. For example, you and your husband are on the table then eat foods together. With the atmosphere of togetherness, then the childs appetite will occur slowly. Provide healthy snacks One of the things that concern by parents is the development of the child if he did not want to eat. Of course, when children are fussy eaters then its growth will be stunted and not as friends. One of the best ways to keep it is to try to give nutritional healthy snack. Give interesting snacks such as nuts, dried fruits, and nutritious bread. Variety of food and a nice appearance Perhaps, he needs a variety of foods that your appetite he has incurred. For example, you could give spinach on the first day, broccoli on the second day, and chicken-based dishes in the next day. Variety of foods is a very important thing to prevent children from boredom and the desire not to eat. However, there is one more thing that could trigger a childs appetite, which is an interesting food dish. For example, you can cook carrots to form a star or a unique object. Children will be attracted by the shape and believed to increase appetite. Hopefully, some difficulty eating kids tips above can help you.

Write a detailed analysis of the poem Last House especially concentrating on style Essay Example for Free

Write a detailed analysis of the poem Last House especially concentrating on style Essay The poem begins with a dramatic opening. Like the dead march. The use of a simile is effective here because it evokes the notion of finality of death and destruction even before you have finished reading the whole line. The slow beat of destruction is evident throughout the whole of the first stanza. A hum; a waver; a trickle of mortar; a pause; This is reinforced by the poets use of punctuation. The tone created in this stanza is of a melancholy nature and we can sense Fanthorpes regret that the cinema is been torn down. The idea of finality is continued in the second stanza with the phrase This is the last performance. This is emphasised by Fanthorpes use of half-rhyme doubtfully / fall which enacts the disharmony of the destruction of The Regal cinema by hinting at a rhyme which the reader does not get. The tone changes in stanza three to one of nostalgia when Fanthorpe evokes the memories that the crowd has of going to the cinema in the past. She uses onomatopoeic words whistling and yodelling to recreate the excitement of the audience waiting fro the film to begin. The nostalgic tone continues in the fourth stanza as she reminds the reader of the range of cinematic experiences. She uses alliteration, men in macs at matinees to create sordid implications which are emphasised by the regularity. The use of the tactile onomatopoeic word oozing helps create the environment in the cinema when watching a touching film and also establishes the dismal atmosphere of watching the cinema being torn down in the poem. The poem returns to the present in stanza 6 and begins with a question, Where now the oilfields of ketchup, the acres of hair? indicating that something is not right. Fanthorpe questions where the cinema-goers are now going to go all dresses up and with their chips. The final stanza has a haunting tone with use of shades. This is reinforced by the list of famous dead actors Garbo, Garland, Groucho, Welles, Goofy, Wayne which create the image of ghosts. It also possibly suggests that the cinema is now also one of the dead; as once it is torn down, it will no longer exist. The overall intention of the poem Last House, by Fanthorpe is to tell her readers about her feelings as well as describing what she and fellow bystanders saw and the way in which she responds to the scene. I find it interesting how Fanthorpe uses the most appropriate language to achieve the poignant atmosphere of the poem.

Schizotypal Personality Disorder Traits

Schizotypal Personality Disorder Traits To those who find themselves in contact with schizotypal individuals they often range appearing eccentric and aberrant to outright bizarre in their actions. Their behavior is clearly erratic. School and employment histories of these individuals show marked deficits and irregularities. Not only are they frequent dropouts, but they drift from one source of employment to another. If married, they are often separated or divorced. At times, their behavior appears eccentric, that is, they prefer social isolation and may engage in activities that other find curious. In more severe cases, their behavior may seem clearly bizarre. The presence of odd speech patterns is an example. Schizotypal individuals may verbally digress or become metaphorical in their expressions. According to the DSM-III, Often, speech shows marked peculiarities; concepts may be expressed unclearly or oddly or words used deviantly, but never to the point of loosening of associations or incoherence (American Psychiatric Association, 1980, p. 312) Interpersonal Conduct Interpersonally, schizotypals experience a life of isolation, with minimal personal attachment and obligations. As their lives progress it is not uncommon to find these individuals drifting into increasingly superficial and peripheral social and vocational roles. These individuals have virtually no close friends or confidants. They have great difficulty with face-to-face interaction. They commonly experience intense social anxiety at relatively minimal social challenge. For these reasons, we believe the interpersonal conduct of schizotypals may be categorized as ranging from being interpersonal detacted and secretive to inaccessible. Cognitive Style The cognitive style of schizotypal individuals may be ruminative and autistic in less severe variations to blatantly deranged in more severe forms of the disorder. The cognitive slippage and interference that characterize the thought processes of this disorder in its milder forms are simply amplified here. Schizotypals are frequently unable to orient their thoughts logically. They tend to become lost in a plethora of irrelevancies. Their thinking appears scattered and autistic as the disorder manifests itself in its more severe variations. According to the DSM-III, these individuals may report magical thinking (i.e., clairvoyance, telepathy, a sixth sense, or just extreme superstitious behavior). Similarly schizotypals may experience recurrent illusions where they report the presence of a person or force not actually there. Psychotic thought, when it does occur, is transient and not indicative of a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Affective Expression The deficient or disharmonious affect of many of these patients deprives them of the capacity to relate to people, places, or things as anything but flat and lifeless phenomena. Their affective expression ranges from being apathetic to insentient and deadened. On the other hand, some schizotypal individuals seem in a constant state of agitation. Their affective expression ranges from being apprehensive, perhaps even frantic in their affective expression. We will present more on these clinical variations later. Self-Perception Schizotypal individuals often view themselves as forlorn and lacking meaning in life or, in more severe cases, on introspection, they may see themselves as vacant. They may experience recurrent feelings of emptiness or of estrangement. Experiences of depersonalization and dissociation may also be present in these patients. In sum, schizotypals appear virtually self-less as they look inward towards self-appraisal. Primary Defense Mechanism The schizotypal personality disorder is characterized by extreme social and affective isolation as well as autistic and bizarre cognitive functioning. The defense mechanism commonly used by individuals who possess this disorder is undoing. Undoing is a self-purification mechanism in which individuals attempt to repent for some undesirable behavior or evil motive. In effect, undoing represents a form of atonement. In severly pathological forms, undoing may take the form of complex and bizarre rituals, or magical acts. These rituals, such as compulsive hand washing, are designed to cleanse or purify the individual. These compulsions not only cause these individuals discomfort, but they may also consciously recognize them as absurd. Nevertheless, individuals employing such a mechanism appear to have lost the ability to control these acts as well as the ability to see their real meaning. Differential Personality Diagnosis The schizotypal personality disorder is likely to be confused with another severe personality disorder, the borderline disorder. Both the schizotypal and the borderline patterns represent severe personality disorder. Furthermore, according to the present biosocial learning theory, they both emerge when the less severe personality variants decompensate. Yet, there are marked differences in these two disorders. The schizotypal disorder features schizophrenic-like symptoms. These symptoms reflect disturbances in cognitive processes. Thus, the schizotypal is characterized by perceptual pathology as well as social withdrawal and isolation. The most obvious feature of the borderline disorder, on the other hand, is instability of mood. The symptoms of the borderline reflect disturbances in affect rather than cognitive. Finally, the borderline individual is interpersonally dependent, unlike the socially isolated schizotypal. A final note should be made regarding the schizotypal disorder in contrast to the Axiz I schizophrenic disorders. Axis I disorders are characteristically more severe and of relatively shorter duration. The Axis II schizotypal disorder represents the operation of internal, ingrained, and more enduring defects in the patients personality. Although schizophrenic episodes often reflect a psychosocial stressor, the schizotypal disorder represents an underlying and persistent characterological pattern. CLINICAL VARIATIONS The description of the schizotypal personality disorder presented in the previous section portrays the generic aspects of this disorder. It is more common, however, to see the schizotypal pattern manifest itself in one of two major variations. The two major clinical variations of the schizotypal disorder are (1) the schizotypal-schizoid pattern and (2) the schizotypal-avoidant pattern. Schizotypal-Schizoid Variation Schizotypal-schizoid individuals are characteristically drab, sluggish, and inexpressive. They display a marked deficit in their affective expression and appear bland, untroubled, indifferent, and unmotivated by the outside world. Their cognitive processes seem obscure and vague. Such individuals seem unable to experience the subtle emotional aspects of social exchange. Interpersonal communications are often vague and confused. The speech pattern of these individuals tend to be monotonous, listless, or at times, inaudible. Most people consider these individuals as strange, curious, aloof, and lethargic. In effect, they become background people satisfied to live their lives in an isolated, secluded manner. Case 11.1 portrays such an individual. Schizotypal-Avoidant Variation Schizotypal-avoidant individuals are restrained and isolated. Similarly, they are apprehensive, guarded, and interpersonally withdrawing. As a protective device, they seek to eliminate their own desires and feeling for interpersonal affiliation, for they expect only rejection and pain from interacting with others. Thus, apathy, indifference, and impoverished thought, which we saw in the cognitive and affective insensitivity, is presented here as a result of an attempt to dampen an intrinsic oversensitivity. The case of Harold T. is a study of a schizotypal-avoidant individual. SELF-PERPETUATION OF THE SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY DISORDER The prognosis for the schizotypal personality disorder is perhaps the least promising of all the personality disorder discussed in this text. Let us examine why. The self-perpetuating spiral of deterioration that occurs in the schizotypal disorder is fostered by three major factors: (1) social isolation, (2) dependency training, and (3) self-insulation. Social Isolation Individuals who possess the schizotypal disorder are often segregated from social contact. They are kept at home or hospitalized with minimal encouragement to progress on a social basic. Social isolation such as this serves not to perpetuate the difficulties these individuals have with cognitive organization and social skills, but also serves to worsen the status of both. In many instances, the social isolation seems to stimulate a regression on the part of these individuals. They will tend to lose what cognitive and social abilities they may have had before the isolation. Jane W. was clearly capable of returning to society if she had been provided adequate social support. Without such support, the only option was to keep her institutionalized. Dependency Training Often found in conjunction with social isolation is the tendency on the part of those around schizotypal individuals to be overly protective. They will tend to patronize or coddle them. Such overprotection tends to reinforce dependent behavior on the part of the schizotypal. According to Millon (1981), Prolonged guidance and shielding of this kind may lead to a progressive impoverishment of competencies and self-motivation, and result in a total helplessness. Under such ostensibly good regimens, schizotypals will be reinforced to learn dependency and apathy (p. 427). Self-Insulation Finally, not only through mismanagement and neglect will the schizotypal disorder be perpetuated, but also through the tendency of these individuals to insulate themselves from outside stimulation. As we described earlier, to protect themselves from painful humiliation, rejection, or excessive demands, schizotypals have learned to withdraw from reality and disengage themselves from social life. Even though exposed to active social opportunities, most of these individuals will participate only reluctantly. They prefer to keep to themselves-to withdraw. Without active social relationships, these individuals will simply recede further into social isolation, apathy, and dependency. Thus, the disorder is perpetuated. The case of Harold T. demonstrates a condition in which his ability to insulate himself has served as an effective barrier to rehabilitation. His apathy, lack of verbal communication, and habit of drawing strange and religiouslike pictures has effectively insulated him from other and has removed any hope of improvement for almost 10 years. So, in summary, we see that through social isolation, dependency training, and self-insulation, the schizotypal disorder is perpetuated. Although the motives for socially isolating and overprotecting these individuals are usually good, that is, with best interests of the patient in mind, the tactics are actually counterproductive for they deprive the patients of the opportunity to develop social skills while reinforcing dependency. The schizotypals own tendency to insulate himself/herself from social contact serves to exacerbate the disorder even further. Such self-insulation serves to foster and further perpetuate the spiral of cognitive and social deterioration that typifies the schizotypal disorder. Schizotypal Personality Disorder DSM-IV Criteria A pervasive pattern of social and interpersonal deficits marked by acute discomfort with, and reduced capacity for, close relationships as well as by cognitive or perceptual distortions and accentricities of behavior, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following: Ideas of reference (excluding delusions of reference) Odd beliefs or magical thinking that influences behavior and is inconsistent with subcultural norms (e.g., superstitiousness, belief in clairvoyance, telepathy, or sixth sense; in children and adolescents, bizarre fantasies or preoccupations) Unusual perceptual experiences, including bodily illusions Odd thinking and speech (e.g., vague, circumstantial, metaphorical, overelaborate, or stereotyped) Suspiciousness or paranoid ideation Inappropriate or constricted affect Behavior or appearance that is odd, eccentric, or peculiar Lack of close friends or confidants other than first-degree relatives Excessive social anxiety that does not diminish with familiarity and tends to be associated with paranoid fears rather than negative judgments about self Reproduced with permission from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition. Copyright 1994 American Psychiatric Association. Therapy The schizotypal is perhaps one of the easiest personality disorders to identify but one of the most difficult to treat with psychotherapy. The thought disorder and accompanying paranoid ideation work to distort communication between therapist and client and inhibit the formation of a trusting therapeutic alliance. Moreover, because schizotypals are inherently isolative and nonrelational, the therapist may sometimes be experienced as an intrusive presence. Because the alliance is the very foundation of therapy, medication is often needed before lasting progress can be made, especially with subjects who express the disorder severely. THERAPEUTIC TRAPS The expectations of the therapist and their influence on therapy are particularly important and may require careful monitoring. Most schizotypals initially see the therapist as attacking or humiliating (Benjamin, 1996). As anxiety increases, they may retreat further behind a curtain of disordered communication as a means of shielding themselves and confusing the intruder. Occasional retreats are universal. Therapists who become vexed when greeted with silence and emotional distancing only create an atmosphere that justifies such a reaction. Instead, the need for distance must be respected, without conveying feelings of disapproval or inducing guilt, to which many subjects are especially sensitive. Not pushing too hard or too fast can prevent severe anxiety and paranoid reactions. Extraordinary patience may be required because schizotypals repeatedly misperceive aspects of the therapeutic relationship and then act on these misperceptions. Subjects who believe they have privileged access to information beyond the five senses sometimes apply their extrasensory powers to therapy and the therapist, believing that they can read the therapists mind or arrive at conclusions about what the therapist secretly desires on the basic of tangential or irrelevant cues. Accordingly, communication should be simple, straightforward, shorn of psychological jargon, and require a minimm of inference. Schizotypals find it difficult enough to bring order to their own thoughts, much less penetrate ambiguities and double messages carelessly introduced by others. The concrete is to be preferred over the poetic because the latter is naturally rich in connotations, which play havoc with schizotypal cognition. Special attention to the countertransference is in order, for unconscious feelings emitted by the therapist bring an unknown complexity to communication and are especially likely to be misconstrued by subjects. STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES What can be done in therapy often depends on the extent to which the thought disorder intrinsic to the syndrome can be controlled. Otherwise, every aspect of therapy becomes more complicated. Further, the appropriate goals and strategies for any particular subject depend on whether his or her symptoms most resemble an exaggerated schizoid pattern, an exaggerated avoidant pattern, or a mixture of the two. Strategies and techniques appropriate for the dominant underlying personality disorder can be used to supplement the primary goals of treating the schizotypal pattern (refer to the appropriate chapter). Establishing a more normal pattern of interpersonal relationships is a primary goal of therapy. Social isolation intensifies cognitive deficits and allows social skills to atrophy. Contatc with a therapist can prevent further deterioration. Because patterns of disordered family communication typify the early developmental environment of these subjects, therapy offers the chance for a novel, corrective interpersonal relationship through steady support and euthenticity. Accordingly, as emphasized by Benjamin (1996), the basic skills of humanistic therapy, including accurate empathy, mirroring, and unconditional positive regard, become particularly important. Benjamin states that the therapeutic alliance may represent a chance to experience a nonexploitive protectiveness, one that eventually permits the schizotypal to give up management of the universe by magical means (p. 360). After an alliance has been established, subject can be encouraged to voice distortions of reality as they occur, and these can be discussed in the context of the therapeutic relationship. Benjamin (1996) further stresses that many schizotypals are likely to belive that harm may come to the therapist through their association. As such ideas are voiced, they can be tested realistically and tactfully refuted. In general, interpersonal therapy should enhance subjects sense of self-worth and encourage the realization of positive attributes, an important step in defeating detachment, rebuilding motivation, and providing confidence necessary to take the first steps toward constructive social encounters outside therapy. Because schizotypals have difficulty sorting the relevant and irrelevant in interpersonal relationships, therapists may find that much of their time is spent helping the schizotypal test interpersonal reality and gain perspective on which behaviors might be appropriate in whatever situations are current in the subjects life. Repeated discussions of essentially similar situations may be necessary, as many schizotypals fail to realize that these are but variatio ns on a theme. Basic social skills training are often helpful. Modeling behaviors provides an example that even concrete subjects can imitate. The ability to appraise interpersonal realities appropriately is an important step in decreasing social anxiety and accompanying paranoid symptoms while creating a capacity for appropriate affect and a sense of reward. From a cognitive perspective, psychotherapy must adapt to the schizotypals limited attentional resources and tendency to intrude tangential factors. Because many schizotypals are either overly concrete or overly abstract, learning may be generalized to other settings and situations only with great difficulty. Simplicity and structure help prevent the lessons of therapy from being obscured by the discombobulating effects of thought disorder. Furthermore, cognitive techniques allow the content of thought to be identified and eventually modified. This suggests that the combination of medication and cognitive therapy should be particularly effective. Writing in Beck et al. (1990), Ottaviani indicates that the first step is to identity characteristic automatic thoughts, such as, I am a nonbeing, as well as patterns of emotional reasoning and personalization, reviewed previously. Moreover, she suggests that assumptions underlying social interaction present an especially profitable avenue for change, as schizotypals usually believe that other dislike them. Subjects must be taught to act as naÃÆ'Â ¯ve scientists and test their thoughts against the evidence. Feelings do not make facts; instead, each cognition is a hypothesis and should be disregarded if found inconsistent with the objective evidence. Even bizarre thoughts can be dealt with in this way. The thought, I am leaving my body, for example, can be countered with prepared countercognitions: There I go again. Even though Im thinking this thought, it doesnt mean that its true (p. 141) Because an effective grasp of objective reality is the Catch-22 of the cognitive approach, Ottaviani further suggests that schizotypals also be taught methods for gathering contrary evidence. Subjects can list evidence inconsistent with their predictions, for example. Going beyond content, cognitive style interventions can also be made. Rambling can be countered by requests for summary statements, and global statements can be countered by asking for elaboration. Finally, where subjects are not too paranoid or bizarre, group settings can be used to practice social functioning and provide feedback about distorted cognitions. Because classical psychodynamic therapy is inherently unstructured, its use is probably not advised. As noted by Stone (1985), the purpose of psychodynamic therapy should be to internalize the therapeutic alliance. Because the early home environment of most schizotypals is likely to feature fragmented and chaotic communications, the ego boundaries of the schizotypal subject are only poorly developed. The interpretation of conflict not only disregards their desire for distance but also plays into their fear of engulfment. Accordingly, silence should be accepted as a legitimate part of the personality (Gabbard, 1994). Once this acceptance is felt, the subject may then begin to reveal hidden aspects of the self that can be adaptively integrated. Analytic procedures such as free association, the neutral attitude of the therapist, and the focus on dreams may foster an increase in autistic reveries and social withdrawal. Probably the most useful analytic suggestion comes from Rado (1959), who suggests that identifying and capitalizing on some source of pleasure, however small, is a superordinate therapeutic goal. Motivation develops from the capacity for pleasure, and ultimately, only this can balance the painful emotions, attach the schizotypal to the real world, and prevent the dissolution of the self and cognitive disintegration that results from autistic withdrawal.